As Discussed On Monday's Show, Nearly 40 Percent Of What Food Grown In The U.s. Goes To Animal Feed?

Abstract

Purpose

Although the world's food production is approximately 3.99 billion metric tons, one in ix people remain malnourished. In combination with the projected globe population of nine billion past 2050, farther malnourishment of both humans and animals may occur; therefore, understanding of the current status of food waste and reuse is important.

Methods

An all-encompassing literature review was conducted to quantify food waste by weight and pct at harvesting, processing/manufacturing, wholesale, retail, and consumer sectors of the food supply concatenation. The analysis of nutrient waste matter was considered globally, inside the United States, and within the state of California (Us).

Results

Large amounts of food waste material (meat, vegetables, fruits, and breads) are produced daily. Results of the previous research suggest that food waste can be used successfully in diets of monogastric animals.

Conclusions

The poultry industry is growing globally and uses big amounts of corn and soy for poultry diets; therefore, research should be conducted to investigate the partial use of alternative feed ingredients to meet the growing demand for poultry production. Nosotros proposed that food waste, occurring in all sectors of the food supply chain, could get a partial substitute for corn and soy in broiler diets.

Introduction

Variations in nutrient production, distribution, and consumption have led to exorbitant nutrient waste around the world. The continued production of waste and concomitant movement of people from rural to urban habitation are compounding factors. Researchers predict that ~ 68% of the globe'due south population will live in urban environments by 2050, leaving but ~ 30% to supply the immense amounts of fruits, vegetables, and meat products for themselves and urbanites (United nations 2018). In 2016, an estimated 11% of the United States' (United states) population was employed in food production and related industries (USDA-ERS 2018b). Inputs (physical work, country use, and supplements) and nutrient are existence wasted at harvest, processing/manufacturing, wholesale, retail, and consumer levels with 22% of unused food relocated to landfills (Buzby and Hyman 2012; The states-EPA 2016b). Food waste material terminology, those most afflicted by nutrient waste matter, its product, as well as full general and specific methods for preventing and reclaiming loss, especially at retail, are discussed below.

Food waste product

Definition of food waste

Food waste can be avoided or not throughout the food supply chain. Avoidable waste is that which could be readily made into useful products but is ultimately discarded in landfills. Unavoidable waste designates portions of food which cannot be eaten by humans, such equally some fruit and vegetable peels, fish basic, and egg shells. However, unavoidable waste can be made into useful products every bit well (Lewis et al. 2017). Thus, food waste tin can be viewed equally a reflection on human being beliefs rather than nutrient quality (Parfitt et al. 2010). In this manuscript, 'nutrient waste' volition be defined as "the divergence between the corporeality of nutrient produced and the sum of all nutrient employed in any kind of productive use, whether it is food or nonfood" (Bellemare et al. 2017). In other words, food waste matter is the amount of nutrient material produced and ultimately discarded during whatever stage of the food supply chain (Dou et al. 2016). 'Food waste' will also be interchangeable with 'food loss' equally there is no formal distinction between the two in the literature. Food insecurity oftentimes has an inverse relationship with food waste. Food insecurity is defined as having difficulty providing adequate food for members in a household during any given time. If food is lacking for prolonged periods of time, it is chronic food insecurity (Coleman-Jensen et al. 2012).

Terminology along the food chain

Particular terms are associated with food waste due to where information technology occurs throughout the food supply chain. Harvest loss is the food that is discarded directly from the subcontract. Food items are generally discarded due to poor standard advent, damage, or un-ripened status (if of horticultural origin) (Parfitt et al. 2010). During processing/manufacturing, food is more often than not cleaned, dehulled, dried, milled, packaged, or mixed. Depending on the desired finish-production, much of the original fruit, vegetable, grain, or animal could be discarded. Also, loss at the processing/manufacturing stage could be attributed to possible contaminations or poor manufacturing techniques and/or malfunctioning equipment during processing (Parfitt et al. 2010; King 2013). At wholesale, food is stored and sold in mass quantities. Wholesale loss is plagued by brusque shelf-life, depression need, incorrect labeling, or failures in the common cold chain (Lewis et al. 2017). Similar issues are observed at retail (sale of small quantities to the public) where loss occurs due to bruises, torn packages, as well every bit near, nowadays, or past sell-by dates (manufacturer's assessment of nutrient quality). At retail, there is a distinction between the grocery store and supermarket. 'Grocery stores' sell simply food items and 'supermarkets' sell food and non-nutrient items. However, this stardom is often blurred. The final phase of the nutrient supply chain is the consumer who wastes food by over-stocking pantries, allowing perishables to rot, preparing backlog food for meals, and misunderstanding sell-by dates. Food waste in this literature review is quantified by monetary value or percentages of full food produced per sector.

Food waste, world population, and hunger

Approximately 40% of food waste in industrialized countries is from retail and consumer levels, equivalent to the full net food product of sub-Saharan Africa (Gustavsson et al. 2011). In 2014, US nutrient waste comprised 14.nine% of 258 million metric tons (MMT) of municipal solid waste (MSW). Of the 14.9% (38.four MMT), ane.96 MT were composted, seven.xiii MT were combusted with free energy recovery, and 29.3 MT were deposited in landfills (United states of america-EPA 2016b). Other sources noted that 42.3 MMT or up to 103 MMT of food are landfilled yearly in the Usa (Gustavsson et al. 2011; FWRA 2014).

Food waste and food security are competing forces that require further research and attention to exist reconciled. Not only will almost 70% of the earth'south population be urbanites by 2050, the total number of people is predicted to rise to more than ix billion (UN 2018). When because that as of 2015, one in 9 people was chronically malnourished, hereafter sustainable nutrient sources do not seem promising without interventions (Pandey et al. 2016; FAO et al. 2017). The number of malnourished people rose from 777 million in 2015 to 815 meg in 2016 (FAO et al. 2017). The World Health Arrangement (WHO) also reported that in 2016, at that place were 155 million children in the world with stunted growth due to prenatal, intrauterine, and postnatal malnutrition (FAO et al. 2017). Stunted growth was defined equally a child who was − 2 standard deviations from the WHO Child Growth Standard median (de Onis et al. 2011). Stunted growth not only results in a below median elevation, but there are likewise negative cognitive and immune effects. Women who are malnourished during pregnancy are likely unable to find adequate nutrients to support themselves and their babies. The likelihood of their children finding improve nutritional resources in severely deficient areas of the globe is very low unless external assistance is provided.

The severity of the food crisis is loftier and far-reaching. Even in developed countries, similar the US, l million people were nutrient insecure in 2011; sixteen million of the l million were children (FWRA 2014). The 50 million food insecure people accounted for 14.9% of households in the Usa; however, the homeless were not included, causing an underestimation of food insecure individuals (Coleman-Jensen et al. 2012). It should be noted that prevalence of nutrient insecurity in a state similar the United states of america (and possibly, worldwide) is often a thing of disproportioned distribution of food and speaks more than to social/political/economic issues along with behaviors toward food rather than availability of nutrient.

While distribution is a major issue, it is also recognized that world hunger and malnourishment, whether in developing or developed countries, goes hand in paw with the global food waste crisis. It is estimated that of the 3.99 billion metric tons (MT) of food (equally-is) produced in the earth each year, 1.iii billion MT were diverted into landfills (Gustavsson et al. 2011). Generally, food waste from inedible plant parts, bones, blood, and skin is estimated to have approximately 4 kcal of free energy/m dry matter (Benedict and Farr 1931; Banks and Collison 1981; Sehgal and Thomas 1987; Tchobanoglus et al. 1993; Griffin et al. 2009; Lipinski et al. 2013). Based on available free energy from the 1.3 billion MT of annually discarded food and a recommended 2000 kcal/day/person, without any other losses, two.6 billion people could be fed from yearly nutrient waste. This would significantly reduce the 22.9% of stunted children reported in 2016 considering this condition can be prevented past adequate nutrition from conception to 2 years of historic period (FAO et al. 2017). In the United states, a xv% diversion of edible food waste matter would aid in feeding 35% of those who are food insecure (Walia and Sanders 2017). Greater human energy from discarded nutrient would be bachelor if the additional energy required to produce the wasted food products was included. For example, in the US, over 25% of the total used freshwater and 300 million barrels of oil are involved in creating nutrient waste material (Buzby and Hyman 2012). Due to severe effects of nutrient waste product in industrialized countries, the US, and its top food-producing country (California), every cause of food waste in each sector of the food concatenation is important.

Food waste along the food supply chain

Harvest sector

The harvest sector, having helped to shape consumer expectations for 'perfect' fruits and vegetables, is now driven to run across the demand. Farmers produce crops and fauna products that are utilized around the world. To be best equipped to supply the desired goods, it is critical to know the terminal destination of the products prior to production. Even so, in certain circumstances, this results in a tremendous corporeality of waste due to outgrading and corrective restrictions. For example, on a United kingdom (UK) carrot subcontract, 30–40% of edible carrots are sorted and diverted to livestock feed. Rejected carrots accept unpleasant esthetics such as slightly aptitude, crooked, blemished, or offcolored. One reason for rejecting misshapen carrots is that farmers, having created the need, need carrots that tin can be easily and completely peeled by machine or by hand (Stuart 2009). The European Marriage (Eu-28) reported 9.ane ± ane.v MMT (11% of full food waste) of food waste in 2012 (Fig. 1; Stenmarck et al. 2016).

Fig. one

Imperfect carrots which are sorted out and diverted to non-human uses or waste matter. a Oddly shaped carrots which are discarded after harvesting (Settembre 2018). b The typical carrot conformation which consumers want (PlusPng)

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The harvest sector is also afflicted by climatic change, which may lead to waste and a decrease in the availability of food. In recent years, areas of the world such every bit the The states, the Caribbean area, Africa, and South Asia take experienced hurricanes, droughts, and floods, respectively (IFPRI 2018). These occurrences have acquired soil and water stresses which negatively bear upon both quantity and quality of food; the risk for continuation of such trends is high (Rosenzweig et al. 2001; Deryng et al. 2014). The lack of food availability due to climate change supports the international call to limit food waste (AB 32 2006; AB No. 1826 2014; Lewis et al. 2017).

Every bit the top producer of crops and livestock in the US by revenue produced, California contributes eleven% of the total national food production (USDA-ERS 2012). In 2012, 15% of tree fruits, 5% of head lettuce, and 13% of broccoli were left unharvested (NRDC 2012). Unharvested nutrient could be provided to citizens in California. In addition, the unharvested food becomes waste and does not benefit farmers in California. The product of nutrient is expensive, especially when because that California farmers spent US$34.2 billion in 2016 on feed, farm services, livestock, labor, hire, fertilizer, and other subcontract expenditures (USDA-NASS 2016). The cost of labor on farms in California has as well increased by US$2.3 billion from 2015 to 2016 (USDA-NASS 2016). In conjunction with the rising price of labor and tipping fees (money paid to landfills for discarding waste matter) farmers will choose the less expensive option to leave the produce on the field (BSR 2014).

Process/industry sector

In the by, the Great britain produced 2.6 MMT of food waste from the food, drink, manufacturing, and processing sectors (Lee et al. 2010). Of the ii.6 MMT, 84.vi% was diverted to creature feed (Lee et al. 2010). Food waste matter from the manufacturing sector within the EU-28 totaled approximately 16.ix MMT in 2012, comprising 19% of all food waste product in the EU-28 (Stenmarck et al. 2016). Food waste matter and all its associated factors toll European union-28 143 billion euros in 2012, equating to more than than U.s.a.$168 billion (Stenmarck et al. 2016).

During the processing and manufacturing stage, there are many unavoidable food losses such as basic and scales from meat products, and peels and pulp from fruits and vegetables. For 2016, the total almanac quantity of unavoidable waste in the United states of america from processing and manufacturing of fruits, vegetables, dairy, meat, grains, eggs, and other items was 35.9 MMT (Dou et al. 2016). When added to avoidable nutrient waste, the total was approximately fourscore MMT from 27,400 processing and manufacturing locations across the US (Dou et al. 2016). In the US manufacturing sector, approximately 96.8% of nutrient waste product was recycled, 1.v% was donated, and 1.7% was disposed in landfills (FWRA 2016). The high percentage of recycling in 2016 was greater than that of 94.9% reported in a 2013 survey of 16 Us manufacturing companies that represented The states$137 billion in annual sales (BSR 2014).

Inside the processing/manufacturing sector of California, food disposal has been reported at 38%, comprising 0.22 MMT (CalRecycle 2015b). However, an additional 0.16 MMT were diverted to either fauna feed, composting, or anaerobic digestion (CalRecycle 2015b). Due to the 0.22 MMT of food waste product produced by the processing/manufacturing sector, information technology has been mandated by law that facilities which generated "eight or more cubic yards of organic waste in 2016, four or more than cubic yards of organic waste in 2017, and four or more cubic yards of commercial solid waste in 2019" must recycle (AB No. 1826 2014; CalRecycle 2015b).

Wholesale/retail sector

The retail and wholesale sector are very like in that customers have the ability to purchase food items. Inside the retail sector, there are also specialized stores for convenience (bakeries, delicatessens, butchers, fruits, and vegetables).

Reasons reported for wholesale waste matter included product and packaging damage, temperature/storage in non-compliance with nutrient safety regulations, blemishes on produce, and incorrect predictions of demand. In a UK grocery store chain, 70% of nutrient was discarded (Stuart 2009). In a report completed by New S Wales Environmental Protection Potency, 79% of food waste produced from retail trade was landfilled in 2014. Of the 79% of nutrient waste matter, 11.v% was from meat/fish/poultry stores, 15.8% from fresh fruits and vegetables stores, 38.vi% from supermarkets and grocery stores, and 34.1% from other specialized food stores (Lewis et al. 2017). In a study completed in Australia, 98% of wholesale food waste was landfilled whereas only 2% was recycled (Lewis et al. 2017). The Eu-28 reported 15.1 ± 2.7 MMT (17% of total food waste) of food waste from the wholesale/retail sector in 2012 (Fig. 2; Stenmarck et al. 2016).

Fig. ii

(Stenmarck et al. 2016)

Proportion of food waste past sector in the EU-28 in 2012

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As the main intermediaries between producers and consumers, grocery stores or supermarkets are of utmost importance to a majority of people living in centralized U.s. locations and elsewhere. The transition of food from farms to consumers requires long traveling distances, many processing procedures, equipment, laborers, and time. As urbanization increases, the distance and procedure for providing the necessary food supply to dumbo populations volition too increase. The food will have to supply over 181 million people living in areas with populations of over 500,000 in the United states of america, also known equally megacities (Un 2018). A portion of the 18% United states of america population living in rural settings will be responsible for helping to supply the nutrient necessary to feed much of the country and other parts of the globe (FAO et al. 2017). The increasing trend of multi-national grocery stores due to the increased global trade market is besides putting more pressure on farmers to produce more than they were prior to globalization of the food network (Parfitt et al. 2010).

195 MMT of food was available to retailers and consumers in 2010-2 and xix.5 MMT (10%) of that food was lost at the retail level (Buzby et al. 2014; Dou et al. 2016). An Upstate New York grocery store, disposing of over 400 US pounds of food weekly, is probable representative (Griffin et al. 2009). In a 2013 survey of 13 respondents, accounting for 31.viii% of the retail and wholesale sales in the US, it was noted that 42.four% of food waste material was donated or recycled (BSR 2014). Others reported that 54.3% of wholesale food was recycled (FWRA 2016). As with the wholesale sector, the nutrient wasted in the retail sector was due to damaged packaging, dented cans, and unsold blemished products (Parfitt et al. 2010).

Another cause of many discarded food items is the sell-by appointment. These dates are on packages as industry's measurements of nutrient quality, not food safety. Therefore, when consumers are unaware of the true meaning, they tend to err on the side of caution and regard these dates as expiration dates. Outdated items are non purchased or, if in home storage, are deemed unsafe to consume; both deportment lead to waste product (Tsiros and Heilman 2005).

In California, restaurants, food and drinkable stores, and other retail trade tending 2.07 MMT of waste in 2014 (CalRecycle 2015b). The amount of waste product generated by this sector contributed to the loftier levels of decaying nutrient in landfills and exacerbated greenhouse gas emissions. To comply with Assembly Pecker No. 32, California has implemented stringent guidelines to decrease greenhouse gas emissions (AB 32 2006). The nib emphasizes a state-wide limit on emissions of greenhouse gasses by 2020. Therefore, all sectors of the food supply chain will need to decrease nutrient waste.

Consumers sector

The global waste produced by the consumer sector was estimated at approximately 19% of all edible food supply (Buzby and Hyman 2012). The corporeality of nutrient wasted equaled to U.s.$xi.eight billion (Buzby and Hyman 2012). In the UK, it was estimated that vii.2 MMT of food and drink were discarded from households yearly (Buzby and Hyman 2012). Much of the consumers' waste came directly from the plate, equating to approximately thirty% of avoidable food waste in the United kingdom of great britain and northern ireland. In the European union-28, 53% (46.5 ± four.4 MMT) of all food waste came from the consumer sector (Fig. 2; Stenmarck et al. 2016).

The plate waste material documented in US school programs for ~ nine- to 13-year-one-time children ranged from 9 to 28%, depending on where measurements were taken and the subjects (Martin et al. 2007, 2010; Roe et al. 2018). Additionally, information technology was estimated that 12.6% of United states household expenditures in 2016 were spent on food, thus making information technology the third highest behind housing and transportation (USDA-ERS 2017). Earlier, it was estimated that 124 kg of food per capita was discarded (Buzby and Hyman 2012). When converted to full metric tons for an before US population of 311.6 one thousand thousand, this was approximately 41.75 MMT, which is in understanding with the 41 MMT reported past other sources (USDA-ERS 2015). Nutrient continues to be discarded past consumers due to plate scrapings, excess holiday foods, food preferences, misunderstanding of sell-by dates, and spoilage of overstocked foods (Parfitt et al. 2010; Buzby and Hyman 2012). At this stage in the food chain, much of the nutrient is wasted due to behavioral tendencies and minor changes would greatly alleviate the waste.

The total annual nutrient disposal by Californians amounted to 5.1 MT in the early 2000s (CalRecycle 2002). Yet, California has go a leader in environmental protection plans for the US; therefore, it has the highest number of United states of america households (i.34 million) participating in residential curbside nutrient collection programs (Yepsen 2015). In San Francisco, California, U.s.a. residents and businesses are also banned from discarding food into landfill waste (Usa-EPA 2016a).

Solutions to prevent food waste material

Prevention of nutrient waste has become a priority for acme global organizations such as the Food and Agronomics System of the United Nations (FAO), the Food Waste Reduction Alliance (FWRA), and the World Food Programme (WFP). In 1945, the FAO was established by the United Nations (UN); one function of its mandate was to reduce nutrient loss to combat hunger and malnutrition around the world. The FAO had a twoscore-yr goal to reduce the 15% estimated post-harvest loss by 50% in 1985. Due to this goal, the Special Action Plan for the Prevention of Food Losses was established. US representatives also pledged a 50% reduction of food waste product past the year 2030 (US-EPA 2016c).

The WFP was established to help end globe hunger. The goal is to have Nix Hunger by 2030 (WFP 2016). Slowly moving toward the goal, the WFP distributed 3.v MMT of food in 2016 (WFP 2016). Another program implemented by the UN is the Decade of Action on Diet where improvement of food security and diet will be met past 2030 (FAO et al. 2017). Moreover, in the Global Nutrition Summit of 2017, United states of america$640 million was pledged equally new funding to eradicate global malnutrition (IFPRI 2018). The FWRA is an alliance of the Food Marketing Institute, the Grocery Manufacturers Association, and the National Restaurant Association. The principal goals include diversion of food waste from landfills, increased food donations, and avoidance or reduction of food waste within the supply chain and operations (BSR 2014).

Reduction of landfilling nutrient waste using other methods of decomposition is a goal in CA (CalRecycle 2016). In 2010, less than 30 facilities in the United states of america could aerobically process more than than l,000 Mg of food waste annually (Levis et al. 2010). When compared to the 27 active landfills (with anaerobic processing) in California alone, thirty facilities in the entire Us that are capable of digesting food waste are minimal (CalRecycle 2016). However, in California, in that location are 26 composting facilities, although they have unlike capacities (US-EPA 2016a). Modern facilities take float and sink tanks, vacuums, and magnets to remove rocks, glass, and ferrous metal. Before long, it is difficult for small-scale-scale compost facilities (without modern equipment) to process cloth that is completely free of contaminants. Plastic contaminants are removed by hand, which is very labor intensive and not practical (Levis et al. 2010). A larger corporeality of food waste matter volition exist repurposed with implementation of programs that increment awareness and provide instruction on effects of contaminants.

Contaminants from grocery stores are of detail concern equally many of the organically produced products are packaged. In 2 composting facilities in Canada, 10–12% of materials used for composting consist of non-degradable contaminants (plastic or packaging textile) that prevented the use of digested nutrient waste (Levis et al. 2010). If digested food were used, the high level of contamination would take led to wellness defects when fed to animals as sharp edges of plastic could penetrate into the stomach linings or cause obstructions in the animals' gastrointestinal tract (Peris 2003; Moser and Lee 1992; Ryan 1988). Thus, until proper equipment is developed to remove contaminants, solid food waste from grocery stores and supermarkets is not recommended for brute use. Still, as discussed below in the section labeled "Food Waste product as Animal Feed to Supercede Corn/Soy", in that location are emerging opportunities for use of waste.

Government subsidies or incentives may motivate producers, retailers, and consumers to donate backlog food to those in need. Incentives like the Good Samaritan Law implemented past the USDA in 1997 protect food vendors and retailers from liability of food-borne illnesses contracted from donated foods (USDA 1997). Co-ordinate to Feeding America, the tiptop hunger-relief clemency in the Usa, retail contribution to food banks was more than 0.362 MMT in 2012, making retailers the largest contributors (BSR 2014). In addition to the retail sector's contribution to food banks, the harvest sector can besides help more than. In an eighteen-month exam, researchers meantime picked broccoli, cauliflower, and celery with workers in fields and gathered 2585 MT of food (NRDC 2012). This food was then donated to nutrient banks across California.

Gleaning, as discussed above for research, can be a solution to harvest waste. After the initial harvest, concerned citizens tin can harvest remaining edible produce. In 2012, 7412 MT were gleaned in California by just ii organizations (NRDC 2012). Additionally, a form of gleaning can be applied to grocery stores. For instance, Albertsons supermarket chain developed a program to donate safe and edible fresh items such as meat, dairy, and produce that accept reached the sell-past dates to local non-turn a profit organizations (United states of america-EPA 2014). Through this endeavor, daily food waste matter decreased from 720.3 to 45.36 kg (US-EPA 2014).

Another incentive for diversion of food waste from landfills is lowering fees when composting companies pickup food waste matter, thus eliminating a portion of MSW transported to landfills. Periodically, a tipping fee is collected from everyone for discarding waste product in landfills. Typical United states of america tipping fees are currently more than US$50 per ton (United states of america-EPA 2016b). Charging composting companies less for picking up greater quantities of compostable waste product would help eliminate the annual cost of Us$90–100 billion on wasted food or approximately U.s.$600 to Us$1600 spent on nutrient that will exist discarded by a family of four (Jones 2006; Lipinski et al. 2013).

Additionally, composting more green waste material may reduce the total MSW deposited in landfills. California MSW tipping fees have a median of US$45 per ton, whereas dark-green waste material has a median of US$39 per ton. Notwithstanding, disposal of green waste in landfills is lower than disposal of total MSW. The fee decreases further when green waste is composted (US$30 per ton) or added to biomass (US$13 per ton) (CalRecycle 2015a).

The future of biodegradable waste is receiving more attention in California with 15% of its landfills beingness in shut proximity to compost facilities (CalRecycle 2015a). Although much of the energy utilized during the production of nutrient waste matter is lost, some energy is regained through composting. Depending on the process of composting, 49.5–80.iii m³ of methane is produced, which generates about ten gigawatt hours (GWh) of electricity in 1 twelvemonth, profoundly alleviating the net loss due to product of wasted food (Levis et al. 2010). The East Bay Municipal Utilities District in Oakland, California is an example of success. The waste matter haulers collect food from local restaurants and markets and deposit information technology into anaerobic digesters co-located with the waste handling plant. In the anaerobic digester, bacteria interruption down the food waste material and the biogas released is reused as energy for the treatment constitute (US-EPA 2014).

Edible food is sometimes diverted to landfills instead of being distributed to others who demand it. Cost of purchasing, separating, and diverting nutrient may be the reason behind such actions. Perhaps consumers could apply the technology found in studies such every bit the one conducted by Roe et al. (2018). In this written report, the Remote Food Photography Method^® was used by consumers at habitation to document their meals before and afterward eating. Through this engineering science, they assessed food waste in terms of calories and quantity. Their estimations were bolstered by obtaining information from the USDA'south Food and Food Database for Dietary Studies. If the harvest, processing/manufacturing, wholesale, and retail sectors were using the technology, nutrient waste could be quantified across the nutrient supply chain. This technology would besides provide internally and externally validated information from grocery store activities, which are currently difficult to find due to possible negative publicity.

Food waste as animal feed to replace corn/soy

Corn, like soy, is of interest because information technology is needed for human consumption, creature feed, and biofuels. For example, from 2015 to 2018, South Africans used 5050 MMT of corn for human consumption and 5300 MMT for animal feed (USDA-FAS 2017).

The cost of corn will continue to increment as biofuel becomes more than standardized. Although biofuel is heavily reliant on corn and soy, there are some researchers investigating the utilise of food waste as biofuel (Karmee and Lin 2014; Pham et al. 2014; Yang et al. 2014). Nonetheless, inconsistent product and disorganized collection of food waste are challenges which are preventing it from being used as a source of biofuel (Karmee 2016).

In add-on to the heavy reliance on corn as biofuel, it besides remains a food source for many meat/dairy animals as the need for protein, especially meat based, is increasing worldwide (Mumm et al. 2014). The demands for more feed crops are predicted to increment by xl% of the current harvest of corn and soybean (IFPRI 2018). In the US, 13.65 MMT of the corn produced and 37–lxxx% of grains produced are allocated to feeding livestock (Mumm et al. 2014; Leib et al. 2016; Capehart et al. 2018). Some corn (and soy) that is needed for livestock can be offset by incorporation of food waste material into brute feed. Too, the incorporation of food waste can decrease the electric current greenhouse gas emissions (3.vii MMT of CO_two) from production of products direct intended for brute feed (Lee et al. 2010).

Feeding food scraps to animals has been in do for many years. The disadvantages can entail nutrient variability among batches of nutrient waste matter, possible contagion from packaging materials and bacteria, uncooked meat sources, and inconsistent supply of waste (Lee et al. 2010). However, feeding waste to animals is still feasible. For example, in 2010, 2.2 MT of food by-products were diverted to creature feed in the UK (Parfitt et al. 2010). In Australia, there were multiple major retailers who reportedly donated approximately 40,000 MT of nutrient to farmers as animal feed (Lewis et al. 2017). The US Environmental Protection Agency formed a food recovery hierarchy which ranks the diversion of nutrient waste to animal feed as number three, just subsequently source reduction and feeding hungry people (BSR 2014).

In the US, reportedly, 84–86.eight% of nutrient waste product was diverted to either animal feed or land applications from the processing/manufacturing sector, which equates to approximately 1.vi MMT of nutrient waste converted to animal feed (BSR 2014; FWRA 2016). Furthermore, 0.17 MMT of food waste were donated from the wholesale/retailer sector (FWRA 2016). Other sources noted that 0.fifteen MMT or as much as 13.ix MMT of food waste were diverted to animal feed from the wholesale/retailer sector (BSR 2014; Dou et al. 2016). The efforts of MGM Grand Buffet in Las Vegas, Nevada, U.s. are a main case of food waste diversion into animal feed. The MGM Grand diverted xiv,000 tons of pre-consumer food waste to a local subcontract to feed pigs. The food recovery demonstrated at the MGM saved them approximately United states of america$6000 to U.s.a.$8000 per month (Zanolli 2012). At the consumer level, it is estimated that only 149 MT are diverted to animate being feed (BSR 2014).

Much of the food waste product is given to swine and to cattle. A Minnesota company collected food scraps from restaurants, hotels, schools, nursing homes, grocery stores, and large food processors for this purpose. The customers who were serviced by this company paid 30% less than regular waste pickup for deposition in landfills (United states of america-EPA 2014). Additionally, other researchers take compiled food compositions of tropical food waste product from the harvest and processing/manufacturing sector and proposed its inclusion in pig feed (Table 1; Chedly and Lee 2001). The relative amount of each by-production can exist included in the pig's diet without negative furnishings when compared to control diet (Table 1; Chedly and Lee 2001). In THE work of Jinno et al. (2018), comparative analysis for protein and amino in food waste matter from grocery stores and corn/soy was provided. As pigs are not-ruminants, their utilization of feed tin be comparable to poultry; and feed ingredients which are successfully fed to pigs have loftier probability of use in poultry diets.

Table 1 Tropical by-products proposed for silage for hog feedstuff

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The run a risk of disease is the downside of feeding food scraps to some domestic animals. Geese can grind and acidify food waste more effectively than grunter, chicken, or moo-cow (personal correspondence: Klasing 2018). Since the 1980's, there has been a sharp decline in the practise of feeding food waste to some domesticated animals due to disease outbreaks (Leib et al. 2016). By 2007, only three% of US swine farms fed food waste to their pigs (Leib et al. 2016). Thus, laws in many states of the Usa prohibit food waste from being fed to animals with the exception of swine (Leib et al. 2016). Georgia'due south Code Ann. §§ 4-4-twenty–24 (2015) prohibits feeding of garbage to animals except swine and Illinois' 720 Ill. Comp. Stat. § 5/48-seven (2015) prohibits feeding waste to animals with the exception of allowing household waste product for swine (Leib et al. 2016). With the realization of disease spread through contaminated feed, strict laws such as the ane in Georgia were adopted in all U.s. states (Leib et al. 2016).

The practise of feeding food waste to animals has not been completely abandoned. The US now has many processing and feed production facilities that convert food waste to animal feed from various nutrient supply chain sectors, such as harvest and processing/manufacturing. In Minnesota, the Minn. Stat. §§ 35.73–0.78 (2015) allows the feeding of treated animal derived and vegetable waste to livestock and poultry (Leib et al. 2016). The waste material must be either heated (minimum of 100 °C), boiled (minimum of xxx min), or treated through other methods canonical by the Board of Animal Health in Minnesota (Leib et al. 2016). California and New York accept similar laws. The California Food and Agriculture Code §§ 32, 10,901–90, 34,006 (2015) mandates that pasteurized milk and heat-treated animal-derived waste material are allowed for swine consumption. Swine producers may choose to feed household waste product to swine without prior heat treatment and without a permit (Leib et al. 2016). Facilities that choose to feed nutrient waste to swine are required to take a permit to do so, although this excludes feeding of household food scraps.

Broiler craven and food waste

Poultry is a prominent part of livestock. Chickens are in such high demand because they are hardy creatures that abound relatively fast in most areas of the world. Chicken meat and eggs are ane of the main sources of poly peptide for many people in the globe, as is evident in the 25.ii MMT of craven produced in 2017 by the US alone and the predicted 83.9 MMT of broiler product worldwide in 2018 (USDA-NASS 2018; USDA-FAS 2018). There is also increasing demand for meat in countries such every bit Prc where 12 MMT of craven were produced in 2007 and 11.48 MMT of chicken were produced in 2017 (Parfitt et al. 2010; Gustavsson et al. 2011; USDA-FAS 2018). Broiler production in Prc decreased slightly to xi.0 MMT due to avian flu outbreaks in 2017 (Inouye 2017). It is predicted that global meat production volition abound by 66% and developed country's meat production will grow by 78% by 2050 (IFPRI 2018).

In the US, consign of poultry meat has grown by 225% since 1997 (Davis et al. 2013). By 2013, U.s.a. broiler meat was exported to 150 countries worldwide (Davis et al. 2013). The high demand for these birds stemmed from US genetic convenance programs that produce large quantities of meat desired by consumers in many countries that import whole birds or parts (Davis et al. 2013). Chicken meat surpassed pork and beefiness every bit highest carcass weight purchased per capita in 2012 and the tendency has continued (Davis et al. 2013; USDA-FAS 2018). As the second largest exporter of broiler meat with 30% of worldwide broiler production, the US broiler meat industry is predicted to increase in value past 17%; this equates to Usa$30.2 billion (USDA-NASS 2018; USDA-FAS 2018). The xix.2 MMT prediction for Usa broiler meat product in 2018 is lower than the numbers reported in 2017; all the same, in that location is potent growth in the broiler breeder inventory (USDA-ERS 2018a).

The 2019 forecast of broiler craven growth is an increment of 2.iii% due to reports of new production facilities currently under construction (Ha 2018). The increase in broiler production will equate to 1.97 MMT of craven (Ha 2018). With the average slaughter weight of 2.83 kg and US$0.44–Usa$0.48 per kg, it is predicted that the broiler industry will equate to approximately U.s.a.$938 million in 2019 (Ha 2018). With only 38–41 federally inspected broiler chicken producers in the United states, there is high demand from each producer (Davis et al. 2013; USDA-NASS 2015). The expanding broiler industry is heavily reliant on corn and soy as their primary sources of feed.

The dependence on corn/soy in the Us and in regions of the world where there is limited availability of both grains makes it essential to investigate the effects of various feed stuffs on poultry production. As reported by Rondon and Ashitey (2011), the effect of fluctuating prices for corn and soy can influence broiler production in countries such equally Ghana where domestic poultry production declined due to rising prices in corn and flooding of cheaper product from the Eu (Rondon and Ashitey 2011). Many food waste products in Ghana and other countries can be diverted to animal feed for laying hens and broilers.

The main concerns with feeding food waste to broilers are loftier ligno-cellulosic content (Rex 2013). This investigator proposed that methods of digesting the high cellulose content in plants may be feasible for many small-scale-calibration farmers around the world. For example, an established method such as ensiling only requires certain bacteria (lactic acid bacteria) to digest cellulose and hemicellulose and time for the digestion to occur (King 2013; Ni et al. 2015). The processing of food waste product as poultry feed is also of importance because moldy feed volition have decreased nutrient limerick and pose risks to animate being health. As such, drying or fermenting food waste product is a practice that staunches mold growth and should be considered when incorporating food waste into poultry feed. Drying food waste product as a means of preservation volition crave 250–300 L of fuel and 200 kWh of electricity for ane ton of dehydrated product (88–90% dry matter) (Chedly and Lee 2001). Withal, ensiling preserves food while retaining many of the nutrients.

Energy, crude protein, and crude cobweb are a few nutrients that are important to balance in broiler and layer diets. Therefore, when evaluating food waste product products for use in craven diets, nutrient limerick must exist analyzed (Tabular array 2). A well formulated nutrition based on the requirements of the animate being and the food analyses of the feed ingredients may lead to increased feed conversion ratio in the animals. As demonstrated in multiple studies, broilers fed nutrient waste at varying percentages had significantly like performances when compared to a regular corn and soy nutrition (Table three; Damron et al. 1965; Al-Tulaihan et al. 2004; Joshi et al. 2000; Wadhwa et al. 2013; Stefanello et al. 2016). Tabular array three includes waste products from multiple sectors of the food supply concatenation. Dried, ground carrot, and oyster mushroom waste are from the harvesting sector. Dried tomato pomace, carrot superlative hay, cornflakes waste, and meat meal are from the manufacturing/processing sector. Bakery waste and leftover Korean nutrient are from the consumer sector. The inclusion of such feed ingredients allows participation beyond all sectors of the nutrient supply chain which decreases waste accumulation in landfills.

Table 2 Free energy (kcal/kg), rough protein (one thousand/kg), and rough fiber (g/kg) of various feedstuff for broiler chicken and laying hens

Full size tabular array

Table 3 Level of incorporation (% DM) of fruits and vegetables in broiler and layer diets which will yield comparable production equally a 100% corn/soy diet (vitamins and minerals were added where necessary)

Full size tabular array

Bakery waste has been successfully used in broiler feed (Damron et al. 1965; Al-Tulaihan et al. 2004; Stefanello et al. 2016). Damron et al. (1965) constitute that inclusion of up to 10% dried bakery product had no pregnant differences in torso weights and feed conversion ratios as other 56-day-onetime broilers fed exclusively corn/soy. Al-Tulaihan et al. (2004) also found that inclusion of up to 30% dried bakery waste had no significant differences in body weight, feed conversion ratio, and feed intake when compared to 42-day-old broilers fed exclusively corn/soy. Navidshad et al. (2009) institute that when broilers were provided meat meal at 65 and fourscore thou/kg feed in a corn/soy-based diet, they had comparable daily weight gain, daily feed intake, and feed conversion ratio to birds fed with a full corn/soy diet. Moreover, results of studies using waste from fermented fish, various fruits and vegetables, fermented apple pomace, and dried leftover Korean food back up their use in broiler diets (Hammoumi et al. 1997; Joshi et al. 2000; Wadhwa et al. 2013; Bakshi et al. 2016).

Food waste matter utilization in California

California is the producer of 99% or more than of all United states of america almonds, artichokes, dates, dried plums, figs, garlic, kiwifruit, olives and olive oil, pistachios, raisins, table grapes, and walnuts (CDFA 2017). Thus, California, exporting 26% of its agricultural output, provides nutrients to many effectually the earth (CDFA 2017). With the high amount of food produced in California for domestic use and export, food waste product accounted for fifteen% of its MSW in 2008 (CalRecycle 2015a). Therefore, the California Department of Resource Recycling has a goal to recycle 75% of the materials that are currently existence landfilled by 2020 (CalRecycle 2015a). As noted in a higher place, one mode to recycle nutrient waste is to use information technology to replace or partially supervene upon corn and soy for meat product.

Recent technologies have been aimed to recycle nutrient waste in California. One such technology utilized nutrient waste material from supermarkets (80.5 km radius) and specialty stores to create solid and liquid products. This patented process also rendered the nutrient waste matter pathogen-gratis with a consistent availability of nutrients (Usa Patent numbers 9388088, 9416062, and 9643895; Jinno et al. 2018). The process includes enzymatic digestion at 55–57 °C, pasteurization at 75–77 °C, filtering, and pH stabilization to pH 2.8–iii.0 using phosphoric acid. The solid materials are separated from the liquid material, used as a fertilizer (Pandey et al. 2016). This specific process has the capability of recovering ninety% of the original nutrient waste. The remaining 10% of the material is discarded as solid waste product.

The enzymatically digested nutrient waste was highly constructive in promoting growth of strawberries, almonds, leafy greens, tomatoes, and wine grapes (Duarte 2014; Pandey et al. 2016; CSS 2018). Through field studies, the liquidized nutrient waste increased strawberry yield by xl% whereas commercial fertilizers produced a 25% increment (Dara 2013; Pandey et al. 2016). The roots and the marketable weight of the strawberries were similar or higher when compared to standard fertilizers (Dara 2013).

The same enzymatically digested food waste was fed to 56 growing–finishing pigs (Jinno et al. 2018). There was no pregnant difference between pigs fed regular corn and soy diets and those fed the candy food waste diet; therefore, results indicated that the processed food waste may provide the necessary nutrients to growing–finishing pigs (Jinno et al. 2018). Every bit chicken and pigs are both monogastric animals, information technology will exist beneficial to investigate the employ of the processed food waste matter equally a substitute for a portion of corn and soy in chicken diets.

Determination

The proposed use of food waste can partially mitigate issues of hunger, environmental contagion, and economical loss in California. Utilization of nutrient waste every bit animal (particularly chicken) feed can divert it from landfills while providing nutrients to animals and subsequently humans, and may become a model for its use elsewhere.

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Acknowledgements

This piece of work was supported past California Rubber Soil, LLC (CSS).

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Affiliations

1. Department of Animal Science, University of California, Davis, 95616, Usa

   Linda Truong, Yanhong Liu & Annie King

2. California Safe Soil, LLC, Mcclellan, 95652, USA

   Dan Morash

Corresponding writer

Correspondence to Linda Truong.

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Truong, L., Morash, D., Liu, Y. et al. Food waste in fauna feed with a focus on use for broilers. Int J Recycl Org Waste matter Agricult 8, 417–429 (2019). https://doi.org/x.1007/s40093-019-0276-4

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• Received: 25 December 2018

• Accepted: 08 June 2019

• Published: 15 June 2019

• Event Date: December 2019

• DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s40093-019-0276-4

Keywords

• World food supply
• Food waste
• Broiler
• Feed ingredient

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